Everything about Cranberry totally explained
Cranberries are a group of
evergreen dwarf
shrubs or trailing vines in the genus
Vaccinium subgenus
Oxycoccus, or in some treatments, in the distinct genus
Oxycoccus. They are found in
acidic
bogs throughout the cooler parts of the
Northern Hemisphere.
Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 m long and 5 to 20 cm in height, with slender, wiry stems, not thickly woody, and small
evergreen leaves. The
flowers are dark pink, with very distinct
reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by domestic honey bees. The fruit is a
false berry that's larger than the leaves of the plant; it's initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe. It is edible, with an acidic taste that can overwhelm its sweetness.
Cranberries are a major commercial crop in certain US states and Canadian provinces (see "Cultivation and Uses" below). Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers.
Cranberry sauce is regarded an indispensable part of traditional American and Canadian
Thanksgiving menus and European winter festivals.
Since the early 21st century within the global
functional food industry, there has been a rapidly growing recognition of cranberries for their consumer product popularity,
nutrient content and
antioxidant qualities, giving them commercial status as a novel "
superfruit".
Species and description
There are three to four species of cranberry, classified in two sections:
Subgenus Oxycoccus, sect. Oxycoccus
Some plants of the completely unrelated genus
Viburnum are sometimes inaccurately called "highbush cranberries".
Cranberries are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable
phytoplasma disease common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey.
Etymology and history
The name cranberry derives from "craneberry", first named by early European settlers in America who felt the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a
crane (bird). Another name used in northeastern Canada is
mossberry. The traditional English name for
Vaccinium oxycoccus,
fenberry, originated from plants found growing in
fen (marsh) lands.
Cranberries have been eaten by
Arctic peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the
Nordic countries and
Russia. In
Scotland, the berries were originally wild-harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In
North America,
Native Americans were the first to use cranberries as food. Calling the red berries
Sassamanash, natives may have introduced cranberries to starving English settlers in
Massachusetts who incorporated the berries into traditional
Thanksgiving feasts.
American Revolutionary War veteran
Henry Hall is credited as first to farm cranberries in the
Cape Cod town of
Dennis around 1816.
Cultivation and uses
Cranberries are a major commercial crop in the
U.S. states of
Maine,
Massachusetts,
Michigan,
Minnesota,
New Jersey,
Oregon,
Washington, and
Wisconsin, as well as in the Canadian provinces of
British Columbia,
New Brunswick,
Ontario,
Nova Scotia,
Newfoundland and
Quebec. According to the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wisconsin is the leading producer of cranberries, with nearly half of U.S. production. Massachusetts is the second largest U.S. producer, with over one-third of total domestic production. A very small production is found in southern
Chile, in the
Baltic States, and in
Eastern Europe.
Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Currently cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas that have a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form dikes around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in to a depth of four to eight inches. The surface is laser leveled with a slight crown in the center to facilitate drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dikes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide
irrigation for vine growth and for Spring and Autumn frost protection.
Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of establishment for new cranberry beds is estimated to be about US$70,000 per hectare.
A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the Autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the Winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and eastern Canada the Winter flood typically freezes into ice while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand that helps to control pests and to rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.
Cranberries are harvested in the Autumn when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color. This is usually in late September and into October. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with six to eight inches of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years, water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they're cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. In 2005, a new type of cranberry harvester called the Ruby Slipper was introduced into the industry. Whether this type of harvester with fewer moving parts will be accepted by the industry still remains to be seen.
White cranberry juice drinks are made from regular cranberries that have been harvested after the fruits are mature, but before they've attained their characteristic dark red color. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely.
About 95% of cranberries are processed into products such as juice drinks, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries. The remaining 5% is sold fresh to consumers. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. To allow air movement deterring decay, cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms. Because harvest occurs in late Autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed.
Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a
compote or
jelly, often known generically as
cranberry sauce. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast
turkey meat and are considered by some to be a staple of English Christmas dinners, and the
Canadian and
US holiday Thanksgiving. The berry is also used in baking (
muffins,
scones and
cakes) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied.
Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.
Cranberry juice, usually sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make "cranberry juice cocktail" or blended with other fruit juices, is a major use of cranberries.
Nutrients and antioxidant capacity
Cranberries have moderate levels of
vitamin C,
dietary fiber and the essential
dietary mineral,
manganese, as well as a balanced profile of other essential micronutrients.
By measure of the
Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity with an ORAC score of 9,584 units per 100 g, cranberry ranks near the top of 277 commonly consumed foods in the United States.
Potential health benefits
Phytochemicals
Cranberries are a source of
polyphenol antioxidants,
phytochemicals under active research for possible benefits to the
cardiovascular system,
immune system and as anti-
cancer agents.
Cranberry juice contains a chemical component, a high
molecular weight non-
dializable material (NDM), as noted above, that's able to inhibit and even reverse the formation of
plaque by
Streptococcus mutan pathogens that cause tooth decay. Cranberry juice components also show efficacy against formation of
kidney stones.
Raw cranberries and cranberry juice are abundant food sources of the
anthocyanidin flavonoids,
cyanidin,
peonidin and
quercetin. These compounds have an unknown effect on human health, but are powerful against human
cancer cells
in vitro. Their effect in humans, however, is unproven, showing poor absorption into human cells and rapid elimination from blood.
Nonetheless, since 2002, there has been an increasing focus on the potential role of cranberry
polyphenolic constituents in preventing several types of cancer.
Cranberry
tannins have anti-
clotting properties and may reduce
urinary tract infections and the amount of
dental plaque-causing oral bacteria, thus being a
prophylaxis for
gingivitis.
Anti-adhesion properties
There is potential benefit of cranberry juice consumption against bacterial infections in the
urinary system. While much of the evidence is equivocal, hypotheses state that an effect occurs from a component of the juice competitively inhibiting bacterial attachment to the
bladder and
urethra, allowing the bacteria to be flushed out more easily.
Although promising for anti-bacterial activity, long-term consumption of cranberry juice has only limited evidence for beneficial effects against
urinary tract infections in women. Similar applications have not been successfully proved in other clinical trials of consuming cranberry juice or tablets by people with
spinal cord injury associated with bladder
catheterization,
neurogenic bladder or infrequent
urination, any of which may be associated with increased susceptibility to bacterial infections.
Current and completed clinical trials
In April 2004, the French government agency AFSSA, which regulates food products in a way similar to the United States
FDA, granted approval of cranberry juice as an antibacterial agent for
urinary tract health.
To date, four completed randomized
clinical trials have shown evidence for inhibiting bacterial infections in the urinary tract of women by drinking cranberry juice over a 12 month period.
The
US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) also reports three recently completed and four ongoing clinical trials of cranberry juice or
capsules (pharmacy). Six of these human studies are examining antibacterial effects in female urinary tract infections. One evaluates effects of cranberry
polyphenols on
cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in metabolism. To evaluate the drug interaction potential of cranberry,
alprazolam,
dextromethorphan and
caffeine are being examined. As of January 2008, the results of these trials have not been published.
Possible contradictions
An autumn 2004 caution from the
Committee on Safety of Medicines, the UK agency dealing with drug safety, advised patients taking
warfarin not to drink cranberry juice after adverse effects (such as increased incidence of bruising) were reported, possibly resulting from the presence of
salicylic acid native to
polyphenol-rich plants such as the cranberry. However, during 2006-8, several reviews of case reports and pilot studies have failed to confirm this effect, collectively indicating no significant interaction between daily consumption of 250 mL cranberry juice and warfarin.
Marketing and economics
History
Cranberry sales have traditionally been associated with the
United States holidays of
Thanksgiving and
Christmas. Until the 1930s most of the crop was sold fresh.
Cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative
marketing. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a
Wisconsin grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from
Des Moines, Iowa, organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in
New Jersey and
Massachusetts were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the
Eatmor brand. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell. In 1918,
US$54,000 was spent on advertising, leading to US$1 million in increased sales.
With
surplus cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began
canning cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market.
Competition between canners was fierce because
profits were thin. The
Ocean Spray cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal (cf.
antitrust) had
attorney John Quarles not found an exemption for
agricultural cooperatives. As of 2006, about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative. (The percentage may be slightly higher in
Canada than in the U.S.)
A turning point for the industry occurred on
November 9,
1959 when the secretary of the
United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Arthur S. Flemming announced that some of the 1959 crop was tainted with traces of the
herbicide aminotriazole. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars. However, the scare taught the industry that they couldn't be completely dependent on the holiday market for their products and had to find year round markets for their fruit. They also had to be excruciatingly careful about their use of
pesticides.
After the aminotriazole scare, Ocean Spray reorganized and spent substantial sums on
product development. New products such as cranberry apple
juice blends were introduced, followed by other juice blends.
A
Federal Marketing Order that's authorized to synchronize supply and demand was approved in 1962. The order has been renewed and modified slightly in subsequent years, but it has allowed for more stable marketing. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still slightly exceeds demand, there's little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.
Prices and production increased steadily during the 1980s and 1990s. Prices peaked at about $65.00 per barrel (A cranberry barrel = 100 pounds or 45.4 kg) in 1996 then fell to $18.00 per barrel in 2001. The cause for the preciptous drop was classic oversupply. Production had outpaced consumption leading to substantial inventory in freezers or as concentrate.
Cranberry handlers (processors) include
Ocean Spray, Cliffstar, Inc., Northland Cranberries, Clement Pappas & Co., Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors.
| Nutrients in raw cranberries |
| Nutrient |
Value per 100 grams |
| Energy |
46 kcal |
| Fiber, total dietary |
4.6 g |
| Sugars, total |
4.04 g |
| Calcium, Ca |
8 mg |
| Magnesium, Mg |
6 mg |
| Phosphorus, P |
13 mg |
| Potassium, K |
85 mg |
| Sodium, Na |
2 mg |
| Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid |
13.3 mg |
| Vitamin A, IU |
60 IU |
| Carotene, beta |
36 mcg |
| Lutein + zeaxanthin |
91 mcg |
Further Information
Get more info on 'Cranberry'.
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